Metabolic Pathways and ATP Production

What is meant by oxidative phosphorylation?

How is the ${\mathrm{H}}^{+}$ gradient established?

According to the chemiosmotic theory, how does the ${\mathrm{H}}^{+}$ gradient provide energy to synthesize $\mathrm{ATP}$?

How does the phosphorylation of $\mathrm{ADP}$ occur?

How are glycolysis and the citric acid cycle linked to the production of $\mathrm{ATP}$ by electron transport?

Why does ${\mathrm{FADH}}_2$ yield data-custom-editor="chemistry" $1.5 \mathrm{ATP}$, using the electron transport system, but data-custom-editor="chemistry" $\mathrm{NADH}$ yields data-custom-editor="chemistry" $2.5 \mathrm{ATP}$?

What is the ATP energy yield associated with each of the following?

a. $\mathrm{NADH} \to {\mathrm{NAD}}^{+}$ 

b. $\mathrm{glucose}\to 2 \mathrm{pyruvate}$

c. $2 \mathrm{pyruvate} \to 2 \mathrm{acetyl} \mathrm{CoA} + 2{\mathrm{CO}}_2$

d. $\mathrm{acetyl} \mathrm{CoA} \to 2{\mathrm{CO}}_2$

What is the ATP energy yield associated with each of the following?

a. ${\mathrm{FADH}}_2\to \mathrm{FAD}$

b. $\mathrm{glucose} + {60}_2\to 6{\mathrm{CO}}_2+6{\mathrm{H}}_2\mathrm{O}$ 

c. $\mathrm{glucose} \to 2 \mathrm{lactate}$

d. $\mathrm{pyruvate}\to \mathrm{lactate}$

Caprylic acid ${\mathrm{CH}}_3-{\left({\mathrm{CH}}_2\right)}_6-\mathrm{COOH}$ is a C₈  fatty acid found in milk.

a. State the number of $\mathrm{\beta }$-oxidation cycles for the complete oxidation of caprylic acid.

b.  State the number of acetyl CoA from the complete oxidation of caprylic acid.

c. How many ATP are generated from the oxidation of caprylic acid.

When are ketone bodies produced in the body?

Why could a person who is fasting have high levels of acetyl CoA?

What are some condition that characteristics ketosis? 

Why do diabetics produce high levels of ketone bodies?

Consider the complete oxidation of palmitoleic acid, ${\mathrm{CH}}_3-\left({\mathrm{CH}}_2\right)-\mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CH}-{\left({\mathrm{CH}}_2\right)}_7-\mathrm{COOH}$, which is a ${\mathrm{C}}_{16}$ monounsaturated fatty acid found in animal and vegetable oils.

a. How many cycles of  $\mathrm{\beta }$-oxidation are needed?

b. How many acetyl CoA are produced? 

c. How many ATP are generated from the oxidation of palmitoleic acid?

Consider the complete oxidation of oleic acid, ${\mathrm{CH}}_3-{\left({\mathrm{CH}}_2\right)}_7-\mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CH}-{\left({\mathrm{CH}}_2\right)}_7-\mathrm{COOH}$, which is a ${\mathrm{C}}_{18}$ monounsaturated fatty acid.

a. How many cycles of  $\mathrm{\beta }$-oxidation are needed?

b. How many acetyl CoA are produced?

c. How many ATP are generated from the oxidation of oleic acid?

Lignoceric acid, ${\mathrm{CH}}_3-{\left({\mathrm{CH}}_2\right)}_{22}-\mathrm{COOH}$, is a ${\mathrm{C}}_{24}$ fatty acid found in peanut oil in small amounts.

a. State the number of $\mathrm{\beta }$-oxidation cycles for the complete oxidation of lignoceric acid.

b. State the number of acetyl CoA from the complete oxidation of lignoceric acid. 

c. How many ATP are generated from the complete oxidation of lignoceric acid?

Why does the body convert ${\mathrm{NH}}^{4+}$ to urea?

Draw the condensed structural formula for urea.

What metabolic substrate(s) are produced from the carbon atoms of each of the following amino acids? 

a. leucine

b. asparagine

c. cysteine

d. arginine

Draw the condensed structural formula for the $\mathrm{\alpha }$-keto acid produced from each of the following in transamination:

a. 

b.

Draw the condensed structural formula for the $\mathrm{\alpha }$-keto acid produced from each of the following in transamination:

a.

b.

Draw the condensed structural formulas for the products of the reaction of alanine and $\alpha$-ketoglutarate, which is catalyzed by alanine transaminase (ALT).

Draw the condensed structural formulas for the products of the reaction of aspartate and $\alpha$-ketoglutarate, which is catalyzed by aspartate transaminase (AST).

Identify each of the following as a six-carbon or a three-carbon compound and arrange them in the order in which they occur in glycolysis:

a. $3-phosphoglycerate$

b. $pyruvate$

c. $glu\cos e-6-phosphate$

d. $glu\cos e$

e. $fructose-1,6-bisphosphate$

Lauric acid is a ${\mathrm{C}}_{12}$ fatty acid found in coconut oil.

a. How many cycles of $\mathrm{\beta }$ oxidation are needed for the complete oxidation of lauric acid?
b. How many acetyl CoA are produced from the complete oxidation of lauric acid?
c. Calculate the total ATP yield from the complete $\mathrm{\beta }$ oxidation of lauric acid by completing the following:

Arachidic acid is a ${\mathrm{C}}_{20}$ fatty acid found in peanut and fish oils.

a. How many cycles of $\mathrm{\beta }$ oxidation are needed for the complete oxidation of arachidic acid?
b. How many acetyl CoA are produced from the complete oxidation of arachidic acid?
c. Calculate the total ATP yield from the complete $\mathrm{\beta }$ oxidation of arachidic acid by completing the following:

 Identify the type of food as carbohydrate, fat, or protein that gives each of the following digestion products:
a. glucose
b. fatty acid
c. maltose
d. glycerol
e. amino acids
f. dextrins

Which of the following molecules will produce the most ATP mole?

a. glucose or maltose

b. myristic acid or stearic acid

c. glucose or two acetyl CoA

d. glucose or caprylic acid (C₈)

e. citrate or succinate in one term of citric acid cycle

Most metabolic pathways are not cycles. Why is the citric acid cycle considered to be a metabolic cycle?$(18.5)$

If there are no reactions in the citric acid cycle that use oxygen,$O_2$, why does the cycle operate only in aerobic conditions? $(18.5)$

What products of the citric acid cycle are needed for electron transport? $(18.5 ,18.6)$

In the chemiosmotic model, how is energy provided to synthesize ATP ?$(18.6)$

What is the effect of $H^{+}$ accumulation in the intermembrane space? $(18.6)$

Write an equation for the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP.

How many ATP are produced when glucose is oxidized to pyruvate, compared to when glucose is oxidized to $C{O}_2$ and $H_{2}O$? $(18.4 ,18.5 ,18.6)$

At the gym, you expend $310 kcal$ riding the stationary bicycle for $1 h$. How many moles of ATP will this require?

How and where does lactose undergo digestion in the body? What are the products?

What are the reactant and product of glycolysis?

How and where does sucrose undergo digestion in the body? What are the products?

What is the general type of reaction that takes place in the digestion of carbohydrates?

When is pyruvate converted to locate in the body?

When pyruvate is used to form acetyl $CoA$, the product has only two carbon atoms. What happened to the third carbon?

What is the main function of the citric acid cycle?

What metabolic substrate$\left(\mathrm{s}\right)$ can be produced from the carbon atoms of each of the following amino acids?

a. histidine

b. isoleucine 

c. serine

d. phenylalanine

One cell at work may break down a $2$ $\mathrm{million}$ $\left(2000000\right)\mathrm{ATP}$ molecules in one second. Some researchers estimate that the human body has about ${10}^{13}\mathrm{cells}$. $(18.1)$

a. How much energy, in Kilocalories, would be used by the cells in the body in one day?

b. If ATP has a molar mass of $507 \raisebox{1ex}{$\mathrm{g}$}\!\left/ \!\raisebox{-1ex}{$\mathrm{mole}$}\right.$, how many grams of ATP is hydrolyzed in one day?

Which of the following molecules will produce the most ATP per mole? $(18.5 , 18.6)$

a. glucose or stearic acid $\left(C_{18}\right)$

b. glucose or two pyruvate

c. two acetyl  $\mathrm{CoA}$ or one palmitic acid $\left(C_{16}\right)$

d. lauric acid $\left(C_{12}\right)$or palmitic acid $\left(C_{16}\right)$

e. $\mathrm{\alpha }‐\mathrm{ketoglutarate}$ or fumarate in one turn of the citric acid cycle.$$" width="9" style="max-width: none;" >