Chapter 7

Silver and rubidium both form \(+1\) ions, but silver is far less reactive. Suggest an explanation, taking into account the ground-state electron configurations of these elements and their atomic radii.

Write a balanced equation for the reaction that occurs in each of the following cases: (a) Potassium metal is exposed to an atmosphere of chlorine gas. (b) Strontium oxide is added to water. (c) A fresh surface of lithium metal is exposed to oxygen gas. (d) Sodium metal reacts with molten sulfur.

Write a balanced equation for the reaction that occurs in each of the following cases: (a) Cesium is added to water. (b) Strontium is added to water. (c) Sodium reacts with oxygen. (d) Calcium reacts with iodine.

(a) As described in Section 7.7 , the alkali metals react with hydrogen to form hydrides and react with halogens to form halides. Compare the roles of hydrogen and halogens in these reactions. Write balanced equations for the reaction of fluorine with calcium and for the reaction of hydrogen with calcium. (b) What is the oxidation number and electron configuration of calcium in each product?

Compare the elements bromine and chlorine with respect to the following properties: (a) electron configuration, (b) most common ionic charge, (c) first ionization energy, (d) reactivity toward water, (e) electron affinity, (f) atomic radius. Account for the differences between the two elements.

Little is known about the properties of astatine, At, because of its rarity and high radioactivity. Nevertheless, it is possible for us to make many predictions about its properties. (a) Do you expect the element to be a gas, liquid, or solid at room temperature? Explain. (b) Would you expect At to be a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid? Explain. (c) What is the chemical formula of the compound it forms with Na?

Until the early 1960s, the group 8A elements were called the inert gases. (a) Why was the term inert gases dropped? (b) What discovery triggered this change in name? (c) What name is applied to the group now?

(a) Why does xenon react with fluorine, whereas neon does not? (b) Using appropriate reference sources, look up the bond lengths of \(\mathrm{Xe}-\mathrm{F}\) bonds in several molecules. How do these numbers compare to the bond lengths calculated from the atomic radii of the elements?

Write a balanced equation for the reaction that occurs in each of the following cases: (a) Ozone decomposes to dioxygen. (b) Xenon reacts with fluorine. (Write three different equations.) (c) Sulfur reacts with hydrogen gas. (d) Fluorine reacts with water.

Write a balanced equation for the reaction that occurs in each of the following cases: (a) Chlorine reacts with water. (b) Barium metal is heated in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas. (c) Lithium reacts with sulfur. (d) Fluorine reacts with magnesium metal.

Consider the stable elements through lead (Z = 82). In how many instances are the atomic weights of the elements out of order relative to the atomic numbers of the elements?

(a) If the core electrons were totally effective at screening the valence electrons and the valence electrons provided no screening for each other, what would be the effective nuclear charge acting on the 3\(s\) and 3p valence electrons in P? (b) Repeat these calculations using Slater's rules. (c) Detailed calculations indicate that the effective nuclear charge is \(5.6+\) for the 3\(s\) electrons and \(4.9+\) for the 3\(p\) electrons. Why are the values for the 3\(s\) and 3\(p\) electrons different? (d) If you remove a single electron from a Patom,which orbital will it come from?

As we move across a period of the periodic table, why do the sizes of the transition elements change more gradually than those of the representative elements?

In Table 7.8 , the bonding atomic radius of neon is listed as 0.58 A, whereas that for xenon is listed as 1.40 A. A classmate of yours states that the value for Xe is more realistic than the one for Ne. Is she correct? If so, what is the basis for her statement?

The As\(-\)As bond length in elemental arsenic is 2.48 A. The \(\mathrm{Cl}-\mathrm{Cl}\) bond length in \(\mathrm{Cl}_{2}\) is 1.99 A. (a) Based on these data, what is the predicted \(\mathrm{As}-\mathrm{Cl}\) bond length in arsenic trichloride, \(A s C l_{3},\) in which each of the three Cl atoms is bonded to the As atom? (b) What bond length is predicted for \(A s C l_{3},\) , using the atomic radii in Figure 7.7?

The following observations are made about two hypothetical elements \(A\) and \(B :\) The \(A-A\) and \(B-B\) bond lengths in the elemental forms of \(A\) and \(B\) are 2.36 and \(1.94 \hat{A},\) respectively. A and \(\mathrm{B}\) react to form the binary compound \(\mathrm{AB}_{2},\) which has a linear structure (that is \(\angle \mathrm{B}-\mathrm{A}-\mathrm{B}=180^{\circ} ) .\) Based on these statements, predict the separation between the two B nuclei in a molecule of \(\mathrm{AB}_{2}\) .

Elements in group 7A in the periodic table are called the halogens; elements in group 6A are called the chalcogens. (a) What is the most common oxidation state of the chalcogens compared to the halogens? (b) For each of the following periodic properties, state whether the halogens or the chalcogens have larger values: atomic radii, ionic radii of the most common oxidation state, first ionization energy, second ionization energy.

Note from the following table that there is a significant increase in atomic radius upon moving from Y to La, whereas the radii of \(Z r\) to Hf are the same. Suggest an explanation for this effect.

(a) Which ion is smaller, \(\mathrm{Co}^{3+}\) or \(\mathrm{Co}^{4+} ?(\mathbf{b})\) In a lithium-ion battery that is discharging to power a device, for every \(\mathrm{Li}^{+}\) that inserts into the lithium cobalt oxide electrode, a \(\mathrm{Co}^{4+}\) ion must be reduced to a \(\mathrm{Co}^{3+}\) ion to balance charge. Using the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics or other standard reference, find the ionic radii of \(\mathrm{Li}^{+}, \mathrm{Co}^{3+},\) and \(\mathrm{Co}^{4+} .\) Order these ions from smallest to largest. (c) Will the lithium cobalt oxide cathode expand or contract as lithium ions are inserted? (d) Lithium is not nearly as abundant as sodium. If sodium ion batteries were developed that function in the same manner as lithium ion batteries, do you think "sodium cobalt oxide" would still work as the electrode material? Explain. (e) If you don’t think cobalt would work as the redox-active partner ion in the sodium version of the electrode, suggest an alternative metal ion and explain your reasoning.

In the chemical process called electron transfer, an electron is transferred from one atom or molecule to another. (We will talk about electron transfer extensively in Chapter 20.) A simple electron transfer reaction is $$\mathrm{A}(g)+\mathrm{A}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{A}^{+}(g)+\mathrm{A}^{-}(g)$$ In terms of the ionization energy and electron afnity of atom A, what is the energy change for this reaction? For a representative nonmetal such as chlorine, is this process exothermic? For a representative metal such as sodium, is this process exothermic?

(a) Use orbital diagrams to illustrate what happens when an oxygen atom gains two electrons. (b) Why does \(\mathrm{O}^{3-}\) not exist?

Use electron configurations to explain the following observa tions: (a) The first ionization energy of phosphorus is greater than that of sulfur. (b) The electron afnity of nitrogen is lower (less negative) than those of both carbon and oxygen. (c) The second ionization energy of oxygen is greater than the first ionization energy of fluorine. (d) The third ionization energy of manganese is greater than those of both chromium and iron.

Identify two ions that have the following ground-state electron configurations: \((\mathbf{a}) [\) Ar \(],(\mathbf{b})[\) Ar \(] 3 d^{5},(\mathbf{c})[\mathrm{Kr}] 5 s^{2} 4 d^{10}\).

Which of the following chemical equations is connected to the definitions of (a) the first ionization energy of oxygen, (b) the second ionization energy of oxygen, and (c) the electron affinity of oxygen? \((\mathbf{i})\mathrm{O}(g)+\mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{o}^{-}(g) \quad\) \((\mathbf{ii})\mathrm{O}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{o}^{+}(g)+\mathrm{e}^{-}\) \((\mathbf{iii})\mathrm{O}(g)+2 \mathrm{e}^{-} \longrightarrow \mathrm{O}^{2-}(g) \quad(\mathbf{i v}) \mathrm{O}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{O}^{2+}(g)+2 \mathrm{e}^{-}\) \((\mathbf{v}) \mathrm{O}^{+}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{O}^{2+}(g)+\mathrm{e}^{-}\)

The electron affinities, in \(\mathrm{kJ} / \mathrm{mol},\) for the group 1 \(\mathrm{B}\) and group 2 \(\mathrm{B}\) metals are as follows: (a) Why are the electron affinities of the group 2 \(\mathrm{B}\) elements greater than zero? (b) Why do the electron affinities of the group 1 \(\mathrm{B}\) elements become more negative as we move down the group? [Hint: Examine the trends in the electron affinities of other groups as we proceed down the periodic table.]

Hydrogen is an unusual element because it behaves in some ways like the alkali metal elements and in other ways like nonmetals. Its properties can be explained in part by its electron configuration and by the values for its ionization energy and electron affinity. (a) Explain why the electron affinity of hydrogen is much closer to the values for the alkali elements than for the halogens. (b) Is the following statement true? "Hydrogen has the smallest bonding atomic radius of any element that forms chemical compounds." If not, correct it. If it is, explain in terms of electron configurations. (c) Explain why the ionization energy of hydrogen is closer to the values for the halogens than for the alkali metals. (d) The hydride ion is \(\mathrm{H}^{-} .\) Write out the process corresponding to the first ionization energy of the hydride ion. (e) How does the process in part (d) compare to the process for the electron affinity of a neutral hydrogen atom?

The first ionization energy of the oxygen molecule is the energy required for the following process: $$\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) \longrightarrow \mathrm{O}_{2}^{+}(g)+\mathrm{e}^{-}$$ The energy needed for this process is 1175 \(\mathrm{kJ} / \mathrm{mol}\) , very similar to the first ionization energy of \(\mathrm{Xe} .\) Would you expect \(\mathrm{O}_{2}\) to react with \(\mathrm{F}_{2} ?\) If so, suggest a product or products of this reaction.

It is possible to define metallic character as we do in this book and base it on the reactivity of the element and the ease with which it loses electrons. Alternatively, one could measurehow well electricity is conducted by each of the elements to determine how "metallic" the elements are. On the basis of conductivity, there is not much of a trend in the periodic table: silver is the most conductive metal, and manganese the least. Look up the first ionization energies of silver and manganese; which of these two elements would you call more metallic based on the way we define it in this book?

Which of the following is the expected product of the reaction of \(\mathrm{K}(s)\) and \(\mathrm{H}_{2}(g) ?(\mathbf{i}) \mathrm{KH}(s),(\mathbf{i} \mathbf{i}) \mathrm{K}_{2} \mathrm{H}(s),\) (iii) \(\mathrm{KH}_{2}(s),\) \((\mathbf{i} \mathbf{v}) \mathrm{K}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{2}(s), \mathrm{or}(\mathbf{v}) \mathrm{K}(s)\) and \(\mathrm{H}_{2}(g)\) will not react with one another.

Elemental cesium reacts more violently with water than does elemental sodium. Which of the following best explains this difference in reactivity? (i) Sodium has greater metallic character than does cesium. (ii) The first ionization energy of cesium is less than that of sodium. (iii) The electron affinity of sodium is smaller than that of cesium. (iv) The effective nuclear charge for cesium is less than that of sodium. (v) The atomic radius of cesium is smaller than that of sodium.

(a) One of the alkali metals reacts with oxygen to form a solid white substance. When this substance is dissolved in water, the solution gives a positive test for hydrogen peroxide, \(\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}.\) When the solution is tested in a burner flame, a lilac-purple flame is produced. What is the likely identity of the metal? (b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of the white substance with water.

Zincin its \(2+\) oxidation state is an essential metal ion for life. \(\mathrm{Zn}^{2+}\) is found bound to many proteins that are involved in biological processes, but unfortunately \(\mathrm{Zn}^{2+}\) is hard to detect by common chemical methods. Therefore, scientists who are interested in studying \(\mathrm{Zn}^{2+}\) -containing proteins frequently substitute \(\mathrm{Cd}^{2+}\) for \(\mathrm{Zn}^{2+},\) since \(\mathrm{Cd}^{2+}\) is easier to detect. (a) On the basis of the properties of the elements and ions discussed in this chapter and their positions in the periodic table, describe the pros and cons of using \(\mathrm{Cd}^{2+}\) as a \(\mathrm{Zn}^{2+}\) substitute. (b) Proteins that speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions are called enzymes. Many enzymes are required for proper metabolic reactions in the body. One problem with using \(\mathrm{Cd}^{2+}\) to replace \(\mathrm{Zn}^{2+}\) in enzymes is that \(\mathrm{Cd}^{2+}\) substitution can decrease or even eliminate enzymatic activity. Can you suggest a different metal ion that might replace \(Z n^{2+}\) in enzymes instead of \(C d^{2+} ?\) Justify your answer.

In April 2010, a research team reported that it had made Element 117. This discovery was confirmed in 2012 by additional experiments. Write the ground- state electron configuration for Element 117 and estimate values for its first ionization energy, electron afnity, atomic size, and common oxidation state based on its position in the periodic table.

We will see in Chapter 12 that semiconductors are materials that conduct electricity better than nonmetals but not as well as metals. The only two elements in the periodic table that are technologically useful semiconductors are silicon and germanium. Integrated circuits in computer chips today are based on silicon. Compound semiconductors are also used in the electronics industry. Examples are gallium arsenide, GaAs; gallium phosphide, GaP; cadmium sulfide, CdS; and cadmium selenide, CdSe. (a) What is the relationship between the compound semiconductors’ compositions and the positions of their elements on the periodic table relative to Si and Ge? (b) Workers in the semiconductor industry refer to "II–VI" and "III–V" materials, using Roman numerals. Can you identify which compound semiconductors are II–VI and which are III–V? (c) Suggest other compositions of compound semiconductors based on the positions of their elements in the periodic table.

One way to measure ionization energies is ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (PES), a technique based on the photoelectric efect. (Section 6.2) In PES, monochromatic light is directed onto a sample, causing electrons to be emitted. The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is measured. The diference between the energy of the photons and the kinetic energy of the electrons corresponds to the energy needed to remove the electrons (that is, the ionization energy). Suppose that a PES experiment is performed in which mercury vapor is irradiated with ultraviolet light of wavelength 58.4 nm. (a) What is the energy of a photon of this light, in joules? (b) Write an equation that shows the process corresponding to the first ionization energy of Hg. (c) The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is measured to be \(1.72 \times 10^{-18} \mathrm{J} .\) What is the first ionization energy of \(\mathrm{Hg},\) in \(\mathrm{kJ} / \mathrm{mol} ?(\mathbf{d})\) Using Figure \(7.10,\) determine which of the halogen elements has a first ionization energy closest to that of mercury.

Mercury in the environment can exist in oxidation states 0, +1, and +2. One major question in environmental chemistry research is how to best measure the oxidation state of mercury in natural systems; this is made more complicated by the fact that mercury can be reduced or oxidized on surfaces differently than it would be if it were free in solution. XPS, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, is a technique related to PES (see Exercise 7.111), but instead of using ultraviolet light to eject valence electrons, X rays are used to eject core electrons. The energies of the core electrons are different for different oxidation states of the element. In one set of experiments, researchers examined mercury contamination of minerals in water. They measured the XPS signals that corresponded to electrons ejected from mercury’s 4\(f\) orbitals at 105 eV, from an X-ray source that provided 1253.6 \(\mathrm{eV}\) of energy \(\left(1 \mathrm{ev}=1.602 \times 10^{-19} \mathrm{J}\right)\) The oxygen on the mineral surface gave emitted electron energies at \(531 \mathrm{eV},\) corresponding to the 1 \(\mathrm{s}\) orbital of oxygen. Overall the researchers concluded that oxidation states were \(+2\) for \(\mathrm{Hg}\) and \(-2\) for \(\mathrm{O}\) (a) Calculate the wavelength of the X rays used in this experiment. (b) Compare the energies of the 4f electrons in mercury and the 1s electrons in oxygen from these data to the first ionization energies of mercury and oxygen from the data in this chapter. (c) Write out the ground- state electron configurations for \(\mathrm{Hg}^{2+}\) and \(\mathrm{O}^{2-} ;\) which electrons are the valence electrons in each case?

[7.113]When magnesium metal is burned in air (Figure 3.6), two products are produced. One is magnesium oxide, MgO. The other is the product of the reaction of Mg with molecular nitrogen, magnesium nitride. When water is added to magnesium nitride, it reacts to form magnesium oxide and ammonia gas. (a) Based on the charge of the nitride ion (Table 2.5), predict the formula of magnesium nitride. (b) Write a balanced equation for the reaction of magnesium nitride with water. What is the driving force for this reaction? (c) In an experiment, a piece of magnesium ribbon is burned in air in a crucible. The mass of the mixture of MgO and magnesium nitride after burning is 0.470 g. Water is added to the crucible, further reaction occurs, and the crucible is heated to dryness until the final product is 0.486 g of MgO. What was the mass percentage of magnesium nitride in the mixture obtained after the initial burning? (d) Magnesium nitride can also be formed by reaction of the metal with ammonia at high temperature. Write a balanced equation for this reaction. If a \(6.3-\mathrm{g}\) Mg ribbon reacts with 2.57 \(\mathrm{g} \mathrm{NH}_{3}(g)\) and the reaction goes to completion, which component is the limiting reactant? What mass of \(\mathrm{H}_{2}(g)\) is formed in the reaction? (e) The standard enthalpy of formation of solid magnesium nitride is \(-461.08 \mathrm{kJ} / \mathrm{mol} .\) Calculate the standard enthalpy change for the reaction between magnesium metal and ammonia gas.

Potassium superoxide, \(\mathrm{KO}_{2},\) is often used in oxygen masks (such as those used by firefighters) because \(\mathrm{KO}_{2}\) reacts with \(\mathrm{CO}_{2}\) to release molecular oxygen. Experiments indicate that 2 \(\mathrm{mol}\) of \(\mathrm{KO}_{2}(s)\) react with each mole of= \(\mathrm{CO}_{2}(g) .\) (a) The products of the reaction are \(\mathrm{K}_{2} \mathrm{CO}_{3}(s)\) and \(\mathrm{O}_{2}(g) .\) Write a balanced equation for the reaction between \(\mathrm{KO}_{2}(s)\) and \(\mathrm{CO}_{2}(g) .(\mathbf{b})\) Indicate the oxidation number for each atom involved in the reaction in part (a). What elements are being oxidized and reduced? (c) What mass of \(\mathrm{KO}_{2}(s)\) is needed to consume 18.0 \(\mathrm{g} \mathrm{CO}_{2}(g) ?\) What mass of \(\mathrm{O}_{2}(g)\) is produced during this reaction?